I. Creation Theology or Creator’s Theology?
Walther Zimmerli coined his famous adage: “Wisdom thinks resolutely within the framework of a theology of creation.”11 However, Zimmerli’s theology of creation functions primarily as a warrant for anthropocentric-eudemonistic wisdom bereft of divine influence in support of human autonomy.12 In addition, Klaus Koch promoted a mechanistic act-consequence nexus within the creation order of Proverbs in which divine agency is limited to the initial act of creation.13 This concept of creation order paves the way for the scholarly tendency to introduce what Roland Murphy calls a “buffer zone of order [that] comes between the sage and the Lord.”14 Hence, even if the divine agency is acknowledged as having a place in proverbial wisdom, that agency is perceived as limited to the initial stage of creation. Specifically, the notion of divine intervention is denied. Creation theology, thus construed, renders creation (and its order) as the subject and relegates the creator to the periphery.15
In reassessing the nature of creation theology in Proverbs, Stuart Weeks saliently states that “it is problematic to speak of a ‘creation theology’ in wisdom literature; it is much less difficult to speak of a ‘creator theology…which is intrinsic to its character.”16 Several scholars have strongly criticized the Kochian notion of a mechanistic creation order for marginalizing YHWH’s agency.17 Notably, Lennart Boström rightly contends that agency (both human and divine) and responsibility rather than a mechanistic function of impersonal forces is the basis of Proverb’s view of causality. Furthermore, Zoltán Schwáb argues that Proverbs is not so much creation-centric or anthropocentric as it is theocentric. From Proverbs 2:1–5, he points out that Proverbs surprisingly projects the fear and knowledge of God as the result of pursuing wisdom.18 Accordingly, when Proverbs asserts that the fear and knowledge of God is the telos of the pursuit of wisdom, God is made “the highest end in Proverbs.”19 Schwáb’s exegesis comports with the explicit claims of Proverbs 1:7 and 9:10 that wisdom is founded on the fear of the YHWH. Thus, YHWH stands at both the beginning and end of wisdom. In short, it is warranted that we begin our investigation of the theology of creation in Proverbs in terms of a creator-creation relationship.
II. YHWH’s Transcendence and Unlimited Agency as Creator in Proverbs
The concept of God (Gottesbild) in Proverbs as the transcendent and sovereign Creator undergirds its view of an unlimited divine agency. Johannes Fichtner and Boström underscore YHWH as both the world’s creator and sovereign regent.20 Fichtner speaks of divine transcendence as “self-evidently presumed” (selbstverständlich vorausgesetzt), since it serves as the basis for divine retribution and justice in Proverbs.21
It is noteworthy that references to YHWH as the Creator are ensconced within two passages that exalt wisdom (Prov. 3:13–20; 8:1–36). The abrupt shift of focus from wisdom’s self-predication to YHWH in 3:19 and 8:22 (both verses transit “fronting” YHWH at the initial position of the sentence) suggests the primacy of the Creator over wisdom. Wisdom’s exalted status in creation has resulted in hypotheses that Lady Wisdom is also a deity of some sort.22 However, while personified wisdom was co-present with YHWH during creation (Prov. 8:27–30), the text is clear that YHWH alone is the creator of all things. As Creator, YHWH stands outside of creation. Claus Westermann explains, “All being, like all that exists, is created; was God an ens (being), even the highest, then he would be created, not Creator. Where being and existence are no longer identical with being created, God is no longer the Creator as the Bible understands this word.”23
That Proverbs appears to eschew anthropomorphic depictions of God, especially in the creation accounts (Prov. 3 and 8), further underscores the transcendence of God.24 As Creator, YHWH transcends all creaturely categories. Though the characteristics of divine sovereignty, transcendence, omnipotence, and omniscience are not unique to Israelite wisdom but are also present in Egyptian wisdom,25 the monotheism of Yahwistic faith provides the basis for the radical transcendence of YHWH.26 Regardless of whether the term “monotheism” is appropriate to describe Yahwism,27 YHWH alone is perceived as the “wholly other” in the worldview of Proverbs. As Yehezkel Kaufmann has argued, the uniqueness of Israel’s monotheism is not so much “the concept of God as Creator, eternal, benign, or even all-powerful,” since these are common notions found in other ancient religions, but that YHWH is “the source of all being, not subject to a cosmic order, and not emergent from a pre-existent realm; a god free of the limitations of magic and mythology.”28 YHWH is the “wholly other,” the one distinct from his creation.29
Divine Omniscience and Agency
While Proverbs 3 and 8 emphasize YHWH as the Creator of the world, in the sentence literature of Proverbs 10–29, the accent falls on YHWH as the Creator of humanity (Prov. 14:31; 17:5; 22:2).30 In these passages, divine transcendence is manifest in YHWH’s total awareness of human affairs. Divine omniscience transcends space and time. “For before the eyes of YHWH are the ways of a man, and all his paths he is evaluating [mefalles]” (5:21). “In every place are the eyes of YHWH, keeping watch of the evil and the good” (15:3). The human heart is laid bare before YHWH’s scrutinizing omniscience (15:11), and his assessment is more accurate than the self-evaluation of humans (16:2; 21:2). Divine omniscience, then, is the basis for divine retribution—God’s righteous intervention into the affairs of the human world. That YHWH can perceive and evaluate the human heart ensures that he can and will recompense (heshiv) each one according to his work (24:12).31 Divine omniscience also safeguards knowledge (da’ath) by subverting (waysallef) the words of the treacherous (22:12).32
Furthermore, although divine transcendence is stated without any contrast to or comparison with human beings in individual passages, we can observe the differences between the limits of human agency and the boundlessness of divine agency.33 Humans can mistakenly evaluate their own paths (Prov. 14:12) and their own hearts (16:2; 20:9; 21:2), but YHWH’s knowledge of everything human is in-depth and precise (5:21; 15:3, 11). Human planning, while valid and necessary, is nevertheless subject to God’s rule and determination (16:1, 9; 19:21; 20:24; 21:30, 31). Boström states it well: “The contrast between God and man is so profound that one may say that they belong to different worlds. Man exists within the limits of this world while the LORD does not appear to be bound by its limitations. God belongs to a reality separate from and unknown to man at the same time as he is actively involved in the world of men.”34
In addition, Proverbs does not distinguish between transcendence and immanence but perceives both as integral to YHWH as the Creator. Divine transcendence and the Creator’s agency in human affairs are inextricably tied. As the transcendent Creator, YHWH has the freedom and power to affect human beings. In this sense, his creative and interventive agency moves unhindered within human agents. In Proverbs, YHWH’s creation of human faculties undergirds the freedom and responsibility of human agents. It is the basis for the unhindered flow of divine agency within human agents.35
Divine Transcendence and Human Faculties
As the transcendent creator, YHWH is the maker of the faculties of knowledge and learning: “The hearing ear [‘ozen shoma’ath] and the seeing eye [we’ayin ro’ah], YHWH is the maker of them both” (Prov. 20:12). In Proverbs, both sight and hearing are faculties of knowing and learning as seen from their frequent juxtaposition with words of knowing and learning (Prov. 1:5; 4:1; 6:6; 7:7; 15:32; 24:32).36 According to Proverbs’ theology, the human senses pertaining to knowledge acquisition are owed to the Creator’s agency.37
In the Old Testament, the divine ability to create human senses underscores the marked contrast between the limitless divine agency and the limitations of human agency. As Yael Avrahami points out, this contrast is exemplified by the inability of human beings to vivify human senses in religious iconography.38 The characterization of idols as the “work of human hands” (ma’aseh yede ‘adam) often accompanies disparaging remarks on the nonfunctional sensory organs of pagan idols (Deut. 4:28; Ps. 115:4–7; and Ps. 135:15–17).
They have mouths but do not speak; they have eyes, but do not see; they have ears, but do not hear” (Psalm 115:5–6).
Psalm 115:2–8 then highlights the contrast between YHWH’s freedom to do whatever he pleases and the inanimate idols—the works of human hands. The idols have merely the appearance of sense organs but are devoid of life and vitality. From another perspective, Isaiah 44:9–20 sneers at the folly of idol makers. The idol makers are senseless—they neither see nor know (44:9)—to think that they can fashion a god who truly sees and knows (cf. Isa. 40:27). In short, human beings cannot create functional senses. Creating human senses, particularly the sense of knowing, is solely a divine ability. From this perspective, the freedom of human agents to exercise their faculties is caused by the Creator’s agency.
Moreover, YHWH’s agency over human faculties is not restricted to the initial stage of creation but goes beyond to sustain human function. In Proverbs 29:13, YHWH gives light (me’ir-‘ene) to the eyes of both the poor and his oppressor. The metaphor of brightened eyes connotes the continual sustenance and not just the idea of initial creation. When Jonathan ate the honey in the honeycomb, his eyes were brightened (wattaro’enah ‘enayw); he was in a revitalized state in contrast with the prior condition of being faint (wayya’af; 1 Sam. 14:27–29). The honey revitalized Jonathan’s life. This reading comports with the Psalm 13:3 use of ha’irah ‘enay, which refers more to the sustenance or revitalization of life than to the creation of life. Similarly, the concept of revitalization is clear from Psalm 19:8 [MT 19:9]: “The commandment of the LORD is pure, enlightening the eyes [me’irath ‘enayim].”39 In this way, Proverbs 29:13 speaks of the poor and oppressor as equal dependents on YHWH’s life-sustaining activity. In addition, the connection between the metaphor of brightened eyes with the rejoicing of the heart in Proverbs 15:30 and Psalm 19:9 suggests that the metaphor is not merely about living but also a normal means of flourishing—experiencing and enjoying life.40 Therefore, Proverbs 29:13 considers YHWH as the source of the normal function of human sight, through which one can live and experience life.
Secondly, in addition to the senses of perception, Proverbs affirms that YHWH has control over human speech and cognition:
To man belongs the plans of the heart, but from the LORD is the answer of the tongue. (Prov. 16:1)
Bible commentaries usually acknowledge the sovereignty and control of God over human speech in Proverbs 16:1. Furthermore, Proverbs affirms the possibility of divine influence within human hearts:
The heart of the king is a channel of water in the hands of YHWH; he [YHWH] turns it every way he [YHWH] desires. (Prov. 21:1)
Proverbs 21:1 states that YHWH is able to direct the hearts of kings since the king’s heart—where the human heart is the seedbed of cognition—41 resides in the hand of YHWH.42
Divine and Human Actions in Concursus
Despite the acknowledgment of YHWH’s sovereignty and control of human faculties, the oppositional view of divine and human actions persists among scholars. It is alleged that each stanza within the bicola Proverbs 16:1 portrays an oppositional tension between divine and human agency.43 The Yahwistic sayings of Proverbs 16:9, 16:33, and 21:31 also join the list of passages regarded as positing such a tension.
Prov. 16:9 The heart of man plans his way, but Yahweh establishes his steps.
Prov. 16:33 The lot is cast into the lap, but the whole decision of it is from Yahweh.
Prov. 21:31 The horse is prepared for the day of battle, but to Yahweh belongs the victory.
However, upon closer examination, the alleged tensions between the human and divine rest on two assumptions: (1) that antithetical parallelism connotes a contradiction or opposition between the bicolon sayings and (2) the priority of human potential in non-Yahwistic sayings. Firstly, the grammatical and syntactical structure of antithetical poetic lines does not necessarily connote an oppositional idea between the two lines. Jože Krašovec notes that though the fundamental character of an antithesis refers to “two opposing elements” that exclude “each other in relation to a common idea,” the term can also refer to a merism—the contraposition of opposite concepts to denote the same idea. Antithetical parallelism can also connote the complementarity of contrasting ideas.44 Just as Marvin Pope notes, “The antithesis is not in terms of contradiction, thesis and antithesis, but in opposite aspects aspect of the same idea.”45 Moreover, as Krašovec points out, antithetical contrasts between YHWH and human beings are fundamental to the Hebrew Bible. Such an antithesis is primarily in the form of “the verticality and radicality of YHWH” over the “horizontality” of human actions.46 Hence, the marked ontological contrast between YHWH and humanity does not necessarily lead to an oppositional contrast between divine and human actions.
Secondly, there is said to be a tension between divine and human actions in a Proverbial aphorism when it is evaluated against other passages that speak of unbridled human potential. The implicit assumption here is that human agency is the starting point by which we should examine the relationship between divine and human agency. However, as we have seen above, such an assumption runs counter to Proverbs’ priority of the creator over creation.
In contrast to the assertion that Yahwistic sayings like Proverbs 16:1, 16:9, 16:33, and 21:31 connote an oppositional tension between divine and human agency, it is more plausible to read these passages as the actualization of limited human agency by divine agency.47 On the one hand, these passages affirm human agency’s legitimacy and limitations. On the other hand, they affirm that divine power is needed to overcome the limits of human agency. The passages are compatible with the notions of divine supplementation of human agency—that God is “remedying the deficiencies of created causes” or “taking their place” when the created agency is inoperative.48 In Proverbs 16:1, YHWH actualizes human speech which began in human heart.49 Proverbs 16:9 depicts YHWH as the one who actualizes human planning by establishing one’s steps. Similarly, the casting of the lot in Proverbs 16:33 is actualized in its purpose by YHWH’s decision. This is in line with the casting of the lot as a divinely sanctioned means for discerning divine decision (Lev. 16:8, 9; Num. 33:54). In the same vein, the emphasis of Proverbs 21:31 is that YHWH alone grants victory by actualizing the intent of battle preparations. In short, divine and human actions can be taken as in concursus with one another—where God’s action is in some sense “running together with” 50 or “accompanying”51 human actions. When there is a comparison of human and divine action, the emphasis is on God’s unlimited agency and humanity’s limited agency.
The notion of divine concursus finds further support when we consider instances when divine actions oppose human activities. While Proverbs generally does not set human and divine action in opposition to each other, divine action is commonly said to oppose wicked activities. Hence Proverbs 22:12 states, “The eyes of YHWH guard knowledge, but he subverts52 the words of the treacherous.” Here, YHWH’s action does not actualize that of the wicked but acts in opposition to it. YHWH does not fulfill but thwarts the cravings of the wicked (10:3). YHWH does not maintain but tears down the house of the proud (15:25). In these cases, there is no correspondence between divine action and the actions of the wicked. Therefore, there is a tacit assumption in Proverbs that whenever divine action concurs with human actions and actualizes that which human agency is insufficient to accomplish (e.g., 10:22; 16:1, 9; 16:33), these human actions must occur in line with and not in opposition to the divine will and purposes.
Concurrentism in the Book of Proverbs
In contrast to deism and occasionalism which pit human against divine agency and vice versa, concurrentism holds that both divine and human agency are genuine and efficacious and that both cooperate together for the same effect (Cf. Ps. 127:1; Isa. 26:12; Phil. 2:12–13). Concurrentism maintains that the dual agencies of God and human creatures are necessary to produce an effect in creation. The same effect, however, is contributed to wholly, not partially, by both divine and created agency, each according to its different ways.53 Since created agency is determined by divine power to exist and to possess a specific nature of a being (i.e., fire produces heat, not cold; human beings are God’s image bearers), as a secondary cause, created agency actualizes an effect by virtue of divine power and exercises its agency according to its nature.54
The core argument here hinges on reconciling divine and human agency through what Kathryn Tanner termed a “non-contrastive” understanding of divine transcendence.55 This perspective does not place divine agency in contrast with human agency, recognizing both as acting on different ontological planes. A non-contrastive view sees God as “wholly other,” vastly different and beyond the limitations of created entities, thereby granting God’s agency unlimited scope over all. As we have seen above, Proverbs affirms both a non-contrastive divine and the unlimited scope of divine agency that extends beyond God’s act of creation. In a non-contrastive approach, human agents possess causal efficacy and can effect changes within the created order without diminishing divine agency. This offers an alternative to occasionalism by rejecting any necessity for divine magnitude to undermine human capability. Instead, divine greatness can coexist with empowered human agency, allowing humanity to act freely yet entirely dependent on God’s creative power. This interrelation enables a harmonious view where divine and human actions are neither inversely proportional nor in opposition. The non-Yahwistic Proverbial sayings that focus on human actions are not anomalies in a God-centered worldview properly anchored in a non-contrastive view of divine transcendence. Sentences that apparently affirm the efficacy of human actions in the world and in gaining wisdom are coherent with a worldview that affirms the efficacies of both creative (divine) and created (human) agency.
Secondly, unlike deism, which might suggest autonomous human agency, a non-contrastive viewpoint permits human freedom to remain dependent yet efficacious, considering divine and human agency function independently yet interrelate cohesively.56 This model counters Immanuel Kant’s rejection of concurrentism57 by proposing that divine influence does not compromise human freedom, as divine action isn’t external but internal, originating from the Creator itself.58 Thus, divine influence can occur without undermining human autonomy. In Proverbs, the assertion that the human senses of perception are created and endowed by YHWH intimates that human ability is contingent on divine agency. As we have seen, the divine endowment of sensory abilities is what gives human creatures the vitality of life. Divine agency is needed for the proper functioning of human existence. Hence, the exhortation to trust in YHWH (e.g., 3:5–6) accords with divine creation and the nature of human beings as creatures with limited created efficacies.
Thirdly, the relationship between divine and human actions is presented not as inversely related but positively proportional: As humans move towards the divine will, the efficacy of divine agency in them is accentuated. Human achievements aligning with divine intentions reflect effective divine action, situating all progress towards human perfection within the framework of divine collaboration. This reframes the tension often assumed between divine and human actions, allowing for a shared path to fulfillment based on mutual functional potency. We have seen above that passages such as Proverbs 16:1, 9, 33 and 21:31 do not depict an opposition between divine and human actions. Rather, these passages depict human actions as actualized by divine action. A non-contrastive view of divine transcendence helps us see how both unlimited divine agency and limited human agency can function together to effect the same result. Inasmuch as human actions correspond with the divine will, human agency is directly proportionate to divine agency. In other words, the more human actions conform to the divine will, the more we can attribute to God his power to affect human agents. The effects that YHWH actualizes are consonant with and not counter to his will, since not even the actions of the wicked are outside of his purposes (Prov. 16:4).59 Moreover, Proverbs makes numerous assertions about the close relationship between divine favor or displeasure and ethical behaviors, making the divine will the backdrop of what wisdom values or anathematizes.60
The point that human agency is directly proportional to divine agency is further evidenced by the observation that the efficacy of human actions (i.e., success) is positively related to piety toward YHWH: “Commit your work to YHWH, and your plans will be established” (Prov. 16:3); “In all your ways acknowledge him, and he will make your paths straight” (Prov. 3:6); “Honor YHWH with your wealth and from the first of all your produce, then your storehouses will be filled with sufficiently, and your vats will burst forth with wine” (Prov. 3:9). In these passages, the efficacy of human actions (i.e., the straightness of one’s path, the establishment of one’s plans, and the filling of one’s storehouses) is attributed to one’s piety. Such piety not only places the accent on the need for human dependence on God but also indicates that human efficacies can be directly attributed to God.
In summary, this non-contrastive view of transcendence advocates for understanding divine and human agencies as compatible, even if an enigma remains on the exact workings of the divine-human relationships. It posits a theological framework where both agencies exist on separate ontological planes without negating one another. Each cause retains sufficiency for its effect, enabling human actions to be discussed autonomously while acknowledging a penetrating divine agency. While Proverbs does not delineate a systematic rationale for concurrentism, it is no coincidence that we find the notions of divine transcendence and unlimited divine agency in colocation with an emphasis on human agency. From the theology and worldview of Proverbs, a non-contrastive divine transcendence is the raison d’être of the compatibility of the Yahwistic and anthropocentric sayings. The coherency of this God-centered worldview stands in contrast to previous scholars’ attempts to integrate the divine and human from an anthropocentric starting point (i.e., wisdom as a human enterprise distinct from revelation)—attempts that tended toward a discordant relationship between divine and human agency.
III. Conclusion
[Wisdom] is a tree of life to those who lay hold of her; those who hold her fast are called blessed. (Prov. 3:18)
With desire-infused language, Proverbs 3:13–18 evokes the memory of Eden.61 Whereas the way (derekh) to the tree of life was barred from human reach in Genesis 3:24, the pursuit of wisdom, in which “her ways (derakheyha) are ways of pleasantness (darkhe-no’am,” and “all her paths are peace” (Prov. 3:17), leads one back to it. Whereas Eve wrongly “desired the tree to make one wise” (Gen. 3:6), the desire for the wisdom of Proverbs leads one to a blessed life. In this way, wisdom re-visions for humanity that the way back to the splendor of Eden is one in which humanity, the crown of creation in all the majesty of our divinely endowed agency, lives in perfect synchrony with every move of the God of creation. Instead of the folly of wearing the crown of a usurper of a world ruled by the True Sovereign, wisdom bestows a “beautiful crown” (Prov. 4:9) on those who prize her. Let us heed wisdom’s call because “wisdom shall be vindicated by her deeds (Matt. 11:19).”
